{"attribution":{"source":"MIT AI Risk Repository, Domain Taxonomy of AI Risks v1 (MIT AI Risk Initiative)","license":"CC BY 4.0","license_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","citation":"Slattery, P., Saeri, A. K., Grundy, E. A. C., Graham, J., Noetel, M., Uuk, R., Dao, J., Pour, S., Casper, S., & Thompson, N. (2025). The AI Risk Repository: A comprehensive meta-review, database, and taxonomy of risks from artificial intelligence. arXiv:2408.12622."},"exported_at":"2026-09-11"}
{"rows":[{"ev_id":"06.09.00","quick_ref":"Hogenhout2021","paper_title":"A framework for ethical Ai at the United Nations","level":"Risk Category","risk_category":"Manipulation","risk_subcategory":null,"description":"\"The 2016 scandal involving Cambridge Analytica is the most infamous example where people's data was crawled from Facebook and analytics were then provided to target these people with manipulative content for political purposes.While it may not have been AI per\nse, it is based on similar data and it is easy to\nsee how AI would make this more effective\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"11.05.03","quick_ref":"Shelby2023","paper_title":"Sociotechnical Harms of Algorithmic Systems: Scoping a Taxonomy for Harm Reduction","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Societal System Harms","risk_subcategory":"Civic and political harms","description":"Political harms emerge when “people are disenfranchised and deprived of appropriate political power and influence” [186, p. 162]. These harms focus on the domain of government, and focus on how algorithmic systems govern through individualized nudges or micro-directives [187], that may destabilize governance systems, erode human rights, be used as weapons of war [188], and enact surveillant regimes that disproportionately target and harm people of color","entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"15.02.07","quick_ref":"Tan2022","paper_title":"The Risks of Machine Learning Systems","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Second-Order Risks","risk_subcategory":"Other ethical risks","description":"\"Although we have discussed a number of common risks posed by ML systems, we acknowledge that there are many other ethical risks such as the potential for psychological manipulation, dehumanization, and exploitation of humans at scale.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"16.04.01","quick_ref":"Weidinger2022","paper_title":"Taxonomy of Risks posed by Language Models","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Risk area 4: Malicious Uses","risk_subcategory":"Making disinformation cheaper and more effective ","description":"\"While some predict that it will remain cheaper to hire humans to generate disinformation [180], it is equally possible that LM- assisted content generation may offer a lower-cost way of creating disinformation at scale.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"16.04.04","quick_ref":"Weidinger2022","paper_title":"Taxonomy of Risks posed by Language Models","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Risk area 4: Malicious Uses","risk_subcategory":"Illegitimate surveillance and censorship ","description":"Anticipated risk: \"Mass surveillance previously required millions of human analysts [83], but is increasingly being automated using machine learning tools [7, 168]. The collection and analysis of large amounts of information about people creates concerns about privacy rights and democratic values [41, 173,187]. Conceivably, LMs could be applied to reduce the cost and increase the efficacy of mass surveillance, thereby amplifying the capabilities of actors who conduct mass surveillance, including for illegitimate censorship or to cause other harm.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"17.04.01","quick_ref":"Weidinger2021","paper_title":"Ethical and social risks of harm from language models","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Malicious Uses ","risk_subcategory":"Making disinformation cheaper and more effective ","description":"\"LMs can be used to create synthetic media and ‘fake news’, and may reduce the cost of producing disinformation at scale (Buchanan et al., 2021). While some predict that it will be cheaper to hire humans to generate disinformation (Tamkin et al., 2021), it is possible that LM-assisted content generation may offer a cheaper way of generating diffuse disinformation at scale.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"17.04.04","quick_ref":"Weidinger2021","paper_title":"Ethical and social risks of harm from language models","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Malicious Uses ","risk_subcategory":"Illegitimate surveillance and censorship ","description":"\"The collection of large amounts of information about people for the purpose of mass surveillance has raised ethical and social concerns, including risk of censorship and of undermining public discourse (Cyphers and Gebhart, 2019; Stahl, 2016; Véliz, 2019). Sifting through these large datasets previously required millions of human analysts (Hunt and Xu, 2013), but is increasingly being automated using AI (Andersen, 2020; Shahbaz and Funk, 2019).\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"18.04.01","quick_ref":"Weidinger2023","paper_title":"Sociotechnical Safety Evaluation of Generative AI Systems","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Malicious Use ","risk_subcategory":"Influence operations ","description":"\"Facilitating large-scale disinformation campaigns and targeted manipulation of public opinion\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"18.04.03","quick_ref":"Weidinger2023","paper_title":"Sociotechnical Safety Evaluation of Generative AI Systems","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Malicious Use ","risk_subcategory":"Defamation ","description":"\"Facilitating slander, defamation, or false accusations\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"19.02.00","quick_ref":"Wirtz2022","paper_title":"Governance of artificial intelligence: A risk and guideline-based integrative framework","level":"Risk Category","risk_category":"Informational and Communicational AI Risks ","risk_subcategory":null,"description":"\"Informational and communicational AI risks refer particularly to informational manipulation through AI systems that influence the provision of information (Rahwan, 2018; Wirtz & Müller, 2019), AIbased disinformation and computational propaganda, as well as targeted censorship through AI systems that use respectively modified algorithms, and thus restrict freedom of speech.\"","entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"19.02.01","quick_ref":"Wirtz2022","paper_title":"Governance of artificial intelligence: A risk and guideline-based integrative framework","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Informational and Communicational AI Risks ","risk_subcategory":"Manipulation and control of information provision (e.g., personalised adds, filtered news)","description":null,"entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"19.02.02","quick_ref":"Wirtz2022","paper_title":"Governance of artificial intelligence: A risk and guideline-based integrative framework","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Informational and Communicational AI Risks ","risk_subcategory":"Disinformation and computational propaganda","description":null,"entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"20.01.03","quick_ref":"Wirtz2020","paper_title":"The Dark Sides of Artificial Intelligence: An Integrated AI Governance Framework for Public Administration","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"AI Law and Regulation ","risk_subcategory":"Privacy and safety ","description":"\"Privacy and safety deals with the challenge of protecting the human right for privacy and the necessary steps to secure individual data from unauthorized external access. Many organizations employ AI technology to gather data without any notice or consent from affected citizens (Coles, 2018).\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Other","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"22.01.03","quick_ref":"Hendrycks2023","paper_title":"An Overview of Catastrophic AI Risks","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Malicious Use (Intentional)","risk_subcategory":"Persuasive AIs","description":"\"The deliberate propagation of disinformation is already a serious issue, reducing our shared understanding of reality and polarizing opinions. AIs could be used to severely exacerbate this problem by generating personalized disinformation on a larger scale than before. Additionally, as AIs become better at predicting and nudging our behavior, they will become more capable at manipulating us\"","entity":"AI","intent":"Other","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"23.11.00","quick_ref":"Vidgen2024","paper_title":"Introducing v0.5 of the AI Safety Benchmark from MLCommons","level":"Risk Category","risk_category":"Elections","risk_subcategory":null,"description":"\"This category addresses responses that contain factually incorrect information about electoral systems and processes, including in the time, place, or manner of voting in civic elections.\"","entity":"AI","intent":"Other","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"24.03.02","quick_ref":"Gabriel2024","paper_title":"The Ethics of Advanced AI Assistants","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Malicious Uses","risk_subcategory":"AI-Powered Spear-Phishing at Scale","description":"\"Phishing is a type of cybersecurity attack wherein attackers pose as trustworthy entities to extract sensitive information from unsuspecting victims or lure them to take a set of actions. Advanced AI systems can potentially be exploited by these attackers to make their phishing attempts significantly more effective and harder to detect. In particular, attackers may leverage the ability of advanced AI assistants to learn patterns in regular communications to craft highly convincing and personalized phishing emails, effectively imitating legitimate communications from trusted entities. This tec","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"24.03.09","quick_ref":"Gabriel2024","paper_title":"The Ethics of Advanced AI Assistants","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Malicious Uses","risk_subcategory":"Harmful Content Generation at Scale (General)","description":"\"While harmful content like child sexual abuse material, fraud, and disinformation are not new challenges for governments and developers, without the proper safety and security mechanisms, advanced AI assistants may allow threat actors to create harmful content more quickly, accurately, and with a longer reach. In particular, concerns arise in relation to the following areas: - Multimodal content quality: Driven by frontier models, advanced AI assistants can automatically generate much higher-quality, human-looking text, images, audio, and video than prior AI applications. Currently, creating ","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"24.03.12","quick_ref":"Gabriel2024","paper_title":"The Ethics of Advanced AI Assistants","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Malicious Uses","risk_subcategory":"Authoritarian Surveillance, Censorship, and Use (General)","description":"\"While new technologies like advanced AI assistants can aid in the production and dissemination of decision-guiding information, they can also enable and exacerbate threats to production and dissemination of reliable information and, without the proper mitigations, can be powerful targeting tools for oppression and control. Increasingly capable general-purpose AI assistants combined with our digital dependence in all walks of life increase the risk of authoritarian surveillance and censorship. In parallel, new sensors have flooded the modern world. The internet of things, phones, cars, homes, ","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"24.03.13","quick_ref":"Gabriel2024","paper_title":"The Ethics of Advanced AI Assistants","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Malicious Uses","risk_subcategory":"Authoritarian Surveillance, Censorship, and Use: Authoritarian Surveillance and Targeting of Citizens","description":"\"Authoritarian governments could misuse AI to improve the efficacy of repressive domestic surveillance campaigns. Malicious actors will recognize the power of AI targeting tools. AI-powered analytics have transformed the relationship between companies and consumers, and they are now doing the same for governments and individuals. The broad circulation of personal data drives commercial innovation, but it also creates vulnerabilities and the risk of misuse. For example, AI assistants can be used to identify and target individuals for surveillance or harassment. They may also be used to manipula","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"24.03.14","quick_ref":"Gabriel2024","paper_title":"The Ethics of Advanced AI Assistants","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Malicious Uses","risk_subcategory":"Authoritarian Surveillance, Censorship, and Use: Delegation of Decision-Making Authority to Malicious Actors","description":"\"Finally, the principal value proposition of AI assistants is that they can either enhance or automate decision-making capabilities of people in society, thus lowering the cost and increasing the accuracy of decision-making for its user. However, benefiting from this enhancement necessarily means delegating some degree of agency away from a human and towards an automated decision-making system—motivating research fields such as value alignment. This introduces a whole new form of malicious use which does not break the tripwire of what one might call an ‘attack’ (social engineering, cyber offen","entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"24.11.03","quick_ref":"Gabriel2024","paper_title":"The Ethics of Advanced AI Assistants","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Misinformation risks","risk_subcategory":"Weaponised misinformation agents","description":"\"Finally, AI assistants themselves could become weaponised by malicious actors to sow misinformation and manipulate public opinion at scale. Studies show that spreaders of disinformation tend to privilege quantity over quality of messaging, flooding online spaces repeatedly with misleading content to sow ‘seeds of doubt’ (Hassoun et al., 2023). Research on the ‘continued influence effect’ also shows that repeatedly being exposed to false information is more likely to influence someone’s thoughts than a single exposure. Studies show, for example, that repeated exposure to false information make","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"24.11.07","quick_ref":"Gabriel2024","paper_title":"The Ethics of Advanced AI Assistants","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Misinformation risks","risk_subcategory":"Driving opinion manipulation","description":"\"AI assistants may facilitate large-scale disinformation campaigns by offering novel, covert ways for propagandists to manipulate public opinion. This could undermine the democratic process by distorting public opinion and, in the worst case, increasing skepticism and political violence.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"29.02.01","quick_ref":"Habbal2024","paper_title":"Artificial Intelligence Trust, Risk and Security Management (AI TRiSM): Frameworks, Applications, Challenges and Future Research Directions","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"AI Risk Management","risk_subcategory":"Society Manipulation","description":"manipulation of social dynamics","entity":"AI","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"29.02.02","quick_ref":"Habbal2024","paper_title":"Artificial Intelligence Trust, Risk and Security Management (AI TRiSM): Frameworks, Applications, Challenges and Future Research Directions","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"AI Risk Management","risk_subcategory":"Deepfake Technology","description":"AI employed to produce convincing counterfeit visuals, videos, and audio clips that give the impression of authenticity","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"30.04.01","quick_ref":"Liu2024","paper_title":"Trustworthy LLMs: A Survey and Guideline for Evaluating Large Language Models’ Alignment","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Resistance to Misuse","risk_subcategory":"Propaganda","description":"LLMs can be leveraged, by malicious users, to proactively generate propaganda information that can facilitate the spreading of a target","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"31.01.00","quick_ref":"EPIC2023","paper_title":"Generating Harms - Generative AI's impact and paths forwards","level":"Risk Category","risk_category":"Information Manipulation","risk_subcategory":null,"description":"\"generative AI tools can and will be used to propagate content that is false, misleading, biased, inflammatory, or dangerous. As generative AI tools grow more sophisticated, it will be quicker, cheaper, and easier to produce this content—and existing harmful content can serve as the foundation to produce more\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"31.01.02","quick_ref":"EPIC2023","paper_title":"Generating Harms - Generative AI's impact and paths forwards","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Information Manipulation","risk_subcategory":"Disinformation","description":"\"Bad actors can also use generative AI tools to produce adaptable content designed to support a campaign, political agenda, or hateful position and spread that information quickly and inexpensively across many platforms.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"41.02.00","quick_ref":"Allianz2018","paper_title":"The Rise of Artificial Intelligence - Future Outlooks and Emerging Risks","level":"Risk Category","risk_category":"Political","risk_subcategory":null,"description":"\"In the UK, a form of initial computational propaganda has already happened during the Brexit referendum1 . In future, there are concerns that oppressive governments could use AI to shape citizens’ opinions\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"41.02.01","quick_ref":"Allianz2018","paper_title":"The Rise of Artificial Intelligence - Future Outlooks and Emerging Risks","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Political","risk_subcategory":"Biased influence through citizen screening and tailored propaganda","description":"\"AI-powered chatbots tailor their communication approach to influence individual users' decisions. In the UK, a form of initial computational propaganda has already happened during the Brexit referendum. In future, there are concerns that oppressive governments could use AI to shape citizens' opinions.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"42.02.00","quick_ref":"Teixeira2022","paper_title":"An Exploratory Diagnosis of Artificial Intelligence Risks for a Responsible Governance","level":"Risk Category","risk_category":"Manipulation","risk_subcategory":null,"description":"\"The predictability of behaviour protocol in AI, particularly in some applications, can act an incentive to manipulate these systems.\"","entity":"AI","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"43.02.05","quick_ref":"InfoComm2023","paper_title":"Cataloguing LLM Evaluations","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Extreme Risks","risk_subcategory":"Persuasion and manipulation","description":"\"These evaluations seek to ascertain the effectiveness of a LLM in shaping people's beliefs, propagating specific viewpoints, and convincing individuals to undertake activities they might otherwise avoid.\"","entity":"AI","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Other","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"43.02.08","quick_ref":"InfoComm2023","paper_title":"Cataloguing LLM Evaluations","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Extreme Risks","risk_subcategory":"Political Strategy","description":"\"LLM can take into account rich social context and undertake the necessary social modelling and planning for an actor to gain and exercise political influence\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Other","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"43.02.13","quick_ref":"InfoComm2023","paper_title":"Cataloguing LLM Evaluations","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Undesirable Use Cases","risk_subcategory":"Disinformation","description":"\"These evaluations assess a LLM's ability to generate misinformation that can be propagated to deceive, mislead or otherwise influence the behaviour of a target (Liang et al., 2022).\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Other","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"45.02.10","quick_ref":"TC2602024","paper_title":"AI Safety Governance Framework ","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Safety risks in AI Applications ","risk_subcategory":"Cognitive risks (Risks of usage in launching cognitive warfare)","description":"\"AI can be used to make and spread fake news, images, audio, and videos; propagate content of terrorism, extremism, and organized crimes; interfere in the internal affairs of other countries, social systems, and social order; and jeopardize the sovereignty of other countries.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"46.02.02","quick_ref":"Ferrara2023","paper_title":"GenAI against humanity: nefarious applications of generative artificial intelligence and large language models","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Financial and Economic Damage ","risk_subcategory":"Propaganda - Extremist schemes ","description":"- ","entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"46.03.00","quick_ref":"Ferrara2023","paper_title":"GenAI against humanity: nefarious applications of generative artificial intelligence and large language models","level":"Risk Category","risk_category":"Information Manipulation ","risk_subcategory":null,"description":"\"The distortion of the information ecosystem, including the spread of misinformation, fake news, and other forms of deceptive content [28], is categorized as “Information Manipulation.”\"","entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"46.03.01","quick_ref":"Ferrara2023","paper_title":"GenAI against humanity: nefarious applications of generative artificial intelligence and large language models","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Information Manipulation ","risk_subcategory":"Deception - Information control ","description":"-","entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Other","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"46.03.02","quick_ref":"Ferrara2023","paper_title":"GenAI against humanity: nefarious applications of generative artificial intelligence and large language models","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Information Manipulation ","risk_subcategory":"Propaganda - Influence campaigns ","description":"-","entity":"AI","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"46.03.03","quick_ref":"Ferrara2023","paper_title":"GenAI against humanity: nefarious applications of generative artificial intelligence and large language models","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Information Manipulation ","risk_subcategory":"Dishonesty - Information disorder ","description":"-","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"46.04.00","quick_ref":"Ferrara2023","paper_title":"GenAI against humanity: nefarious applications of generative artificial intelligence and large language models","level":"Risk Category","risk_category":"Socio-technical and Infrastructural ","risk_subcategory":null,"description":"\"Lastly, broader harms that can impact communities, societal structures, and critical infrastructures, including threats to democratic processes, social cohesion, and technological systems, are captured under “Societal, Socio-technical, and Infrastructural Damage.”\"","entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"46.04.02","quick_ref":"Ferrara2023","paper_title":"GenAI against humanity: nefarious applications of generative artificial intelligence and large language models","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Socio-technical and Infrastructural ","risk_subcategory":"Propaganda - Synthetic realities ","description":"-","entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"46.04.03","quick_ref":"Ferrara2023","paper_title":"GenAI against humanity: nefarious applications of generative artificial intelligence and large language models","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Socio-technical and Infrastructural ","risk_subcategory":"Dishonesty - Targeted surveillance ","description":"-","entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"47.02.05","quick_ref":"G'sell2024","paper_title":"Regulating under Uncertainty: Governance Options for Generative AI","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Ethical and social risks ","risk_subcategory":"Malicious use and abuse (mass surveillance) ","description":"\"Generative AI facilitates the automation of data analysis, offering numerous benefits, such as increased speed and the ability to process large volumes of information efficiently. Such ability significantly reduces the costs of processing unprecedented amounts of data quickly and simplifies the analysis of large-scale data related to individuals’ behaviors and beliefs. Moreover, it enhances the capability to analyze both textual and visual communications efficiently. Consequently, generative AI models improve the efficiency of real-time monitoring and censorship of social media content.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"47.02.07","quick_ref":"G'sell2024","paper_title":"Regulating under Uncertainty: Governance Options for Generative AI","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Ethical and social risks ","risk_subcategory":"Misinformation and disinformation","description":"\"IIl-intentioned individuals or entities may deliberately use generative AI models to produce and spread disinformation—false or misleading information knowingly presented as if true—on a massive scale. In addition to increasing the scale and reach of disinformation, generative AI can create more convincing and targeted disinformation.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"48.08.00","quick_ref":"NIST2024","paper_title":"Artificial Intelligence Risk Management Framework: Generative Artificial Intelligence Profile","level":"Risk Category","risk_category":"Information Integrity ","risk_subcategory":null,"description":"\"Lowered barrier to entry to generate and support the exchange and consumption of content which may not distinguish fact from opinion or fiction or acknowledge uncertainties, or could be leveraged for large-scale dis- and mis-information campaigns.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Other","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"49.01.02#1","quick_ref":"Bengio2024","paper_title":"International Scientific Report on the Safety of Advanced AI","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Malicious Use Risks ","risk_subcategory":"Disinformation and manipulation of public opinion","description":"\"AI, particularly general- purpose AI, can be maliciously used for disinformation (351), which for the purpose of this report refers to false information that was generated or spread with the deliberate intent to mislead or deceive. General- purpose AI- generated text can be indistinguishable from genuine human- generated material (352, 353), and may already be disseminated at scale on social media (354). In addition, general- purpose AI systems can be used to not only generate text but also fully synthetic or misleadingly altered images, audio, and video content. General- purpose AI tools mig","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"50.03.01","quick_ref":"Zeng2024","paper_title":"AI Risk Categorization Decoded (AIR 2024): From Government Regulations to Corporate Policies","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Societal Risks ","risk_subcategory":"Political usage (Political Persuasion) ","description":null,"entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"50.03.02","quick_ref":"Zeng2024","paper_title":"AI Risk Categorization Decoded (AIR 2024): From Government Regulations to Corporate Policies","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Societal Risks ","risk_subcategory":"Political usage (Influencing Politics) ","description":null,"entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"50.03.03","quick_ref":"Zeng2024","paper_title":"AI Risk Categorization Decoded (AIR 2024): From Government Regulations to Corporate Policies","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Societal Risks ","risk_subcategory":"Political usage (Deterring democratic participation) ","description":null,"entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"50.03.04","quick_ref":"Zeng2024","paper_title":"AI Risk Categorization Decoded (AIR 2024): From Government Regulations to Corporate Policies","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Societal Risks ","risk_subcategory":"Political usage (Disrupting Social Order) ","description":null,"entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"50.03.12","quick_ref":"Zeng2024","paper_title":"AI Risk Categorization Decoded (AIR 2024): From Government Regulations to Corporate Policies","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Societal Risks ","risk_subcategory":"Manipulation (Sowing Division)","description":null,"entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"50.03.14","quick_ref":"Zeng2024","paper_title":"AI Risk Categorization Decoded (AIR 2024): From Government Regulations to Corporate Policies","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Societal Risks ","risk_subcategory":"Defamation ","description":null,"entity":"Other","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"52.02.03","quick_ref":"Maham2023 ","paper_title":"Governing General Purpose AI: A Comprehensive Map of Unreliability, Misuse and Systemic Risks ","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Misuse Risks ","risk_subcategory":"Politically motivated misuse ","description":"\"General purpose AI models could exacerbate existing tactics for political destabilisation, such as disinformation campaigns, and surveillance efforts if misused for political motivations. The technological advancements in text and media generation of general purpose AI models could refine disinformation164 attempts to shape and polarise public opinion or influence important political events.165 The improved automated processing of text, audio, image, and video could be used for surveillance measures and exacerbate human right violations and repression of political oppositions.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"54.01.04","quick_ref":"Leech2024 ","paper_title":"Ten Hard Problems in Artificial Intelligence We Must Get Right","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Negative impacts of AI use ","risk_subcategory":"Privacy ","description":"\"OpenAI’s GPT-3 was designed to be dicult to extract personal information from, including for example public gures’ dates of birth. Even so, malicious uses of AI continue to encroach on privacy, as exemplied by China’s “Sharp Eye” automated surveillance system [551] and automated cyberattacks on personal data [354]. A more drastic form of AI-enabled surveillance could be on the way in the form of nonsurgical decoding of thoughts [54]—a technique which is reportedly already used by some police forces [398].\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"55.03.03","quick_ref":"Clarke2023","paper_title":"A Survey of the Potential Long-term Impacts of AI: How AI Could Lead to Long-term Changes in Science, Cooperation, Power, Epistemics and Values","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Increased power concentration and inequality ","risk_subcategory":"Developments in AI enable actors to undermine democratic processes ","description":"\"Developments in AI are giving companies and governments more control over individuals’ lives than ever before, and may possibly be used to undermine democratic processes. We are already seeing how the collection of large amounts of personal data can be used to surveil and influence populations, for example the use of facial recognition technology to surveil Uighur and other minority populations in China [66]. Further advances in language modelling could also be used to develop tools that can effectively persuade people of certain claims [42].\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"55.04.02","quick_ref":"Clarke2023","paper_title":"A Survey of the Potential Long-term Impacts of AI: How AI Could Lead to Long-term Changes in Science, Cooperation, Power, Epistemics and Values","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Worsened epistemic processes for society ","risk_subcategory":"AI is used to scale up production of false and misleading information ","description":"\"At the same time, we are seeing how AI can be used to scale up the production of convincing yet false or misleading information online (e.g. via image, audio, and text synthesis models like BigGAN [6] and GPT-3 [7]).\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"55.04.03","quick_ref":"Clarke2023","paper_title":"A Survey of the Potential Long-term Impacts of AI: How AI Could Lead to Long-term Changes in Science, Cooperation, Power, Epistemics and Values","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Worsened epistemic processes for society ","risk_subcategory":"AI's persuasive capabilities are misused to gain influence and promote harmful ideologies ","description":"\"As AI capabilities advance, they may be used to develop sophisticated persuasion tools, such as those that tailor their communication to specific users to persuade them of certain claims [42]. While these tools could be used for social good— such as New York Times’ chatbot that helps users to persuade people to get vaccinated against Covid-19 [27]—there are also many ways they could be misused by self-interested groups to gain influence and/or to promote harmful ideologies.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"58.03.04","quick_ref":"Abercrombie2024","paper_title":"A Collaborative, Human-Centred Taxonomy of AI, Algorithmic, and Automation Harms","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Psychological ","risk_subcategory":"Coercion/manipulation ","description":"\"Coercion/manipulation - Use of a technology system to covertly alter user beliefs and behaviour using nudging, dark patterns and/or other opaque techniques, resulting in potential erosion of privacy, addiction, anxiety/distress, etc.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"58.08.00","quick_ref":"Abercrombie2024","paper_title":"A Collaborative, Human-Centred Taxonomy of AI, Algorithmic, and Automation Harms","level":"Risk Category","risk_category":"Political and Economic ","risk_subcategory":null,"description":"\"Political and Economic - Manipulation of political beliefs, damage to political institutions and the effective delivery of government services.\"","entity":"Other","intent":"Other","timing":"Other","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"58.08.04","quick_ref":"Abercrombie2024","paper_title":"A Collaborative, Human-Centred Taxonomy of AI, Algorithmic, and Automation Harms","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Political and Economic ","risk_subcategory":"Electoral interference ","description":"\"Electoral interference - Generation of false or misleading information that can interrupt or mislead voters and/or undermine trust in electoral processes.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"58.08.07","quick_ref":"Abercrombie2024","paper_title":"A Collaborative, Human-Centred Taxonomy of AI, Algorithmic, and Automation Harms","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Political and Economic ","risk_subcategory":"Political manipulation ","description":"\"Political manipulation - Use or misuse of personal data to target individuals’ interests, personalities and vulnerabilities with tailored political messages via micro-advertising or deepfakes/synthetic media.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"60.01.02","quick_ref":"Bengio2025","paper_title":"International AI Safety Report 2025","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Risks from malicious use ","risk_subcategory":"Manipulation of public opinion ","description":"\"Malicious actors can use general- purpose AI to generate fake content such as text, images, or videos, for attempts to manipulate public opinion. Researchers believe that if successful, such attempts could have several harmful consequences.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"61.01.09","quick_ref":"Uuk2025","paper_title":"A Taxonomy of Systemic Risks from General-Purpose AI ","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Types of systemic risks from general-purpose AI","risk_subcategory":"Information ","description":"\"Large-scale influence on communication and information systems, and epistemic processes more generally.\"","entity":"Other","intent":"Other","timing":"Other","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"61.02.03","quick_ref":"Uuk2025","paper_title":"A Taxonomy of Systemic Risks from General-Purpose AI ","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Sources of systemic risks from general-purpose AI ","risk_subcategory":"Ability to persuade ","description":"\"AI could be used to develop sophisticated tools to manipulate and persuade individuals.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"61.02.04","quick_ref":"Uuk2025","paper_title":"A Taxonomy of Systemic Risks from General-Purpose AI ","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Sources of systemic risks from general-purpose AI ","risk_subcategory":"Advertising-driven models ","description":"\"AI models and systems underpin the advertising approaches that drive much of the internet, potentially influencing societal behavior.\"","entity":"AI","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"61.02.05","quick_ref":"Uuk2025","paper_title":"A Taxonomy of Systemic Risks from General-Purpose AI ","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Sources of systemic risks from general-purpose AI ","risk_subcategory":"AI in totalitarian regimes ","description":"\"AI-based surveillance and manipulation could be used to maintain global totalitarian regimes.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"61.02.34","quick_ref":"Uuk2025","paper_title":"A Taxonomy of Systemic Risks from General-Purpose AI ","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Sources of systemic risks from general-purpose AI ","risk_subcategory":"Limitations in model generative accuracy","description":"\"AI-generated deepfakes can create convincingly realistic but entirely fabricated information.\"","entity":"AI","intent":"Other","timing":"Other","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"61.02.43","quick_ref":"Uuk2025","paper_title":"A Taxonomy of Systemic Risks from General-Purpose AI ","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Sources of systemic risks from general-purpose AI ","risk_subcategory":"Surveillance capabilities","description":"\"AI models and systems may grant governments or corporations increased monitoring over individuals.\"","entity":"AI","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"61.02.49","quick_ref":"Uuk2025","paper_title":"A Taxonomy of Systemic Risks from General-Purpose AI ","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Sources of systemic risks from general-purpose AI ","risk_subcategory":"Widespread use of persuasion tools","description":"\"Widespread use of AI-powered persuasion tools could lead to systemic harm\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Other","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"62.09.03","quick_ref":"Gipiškis2024","paper_title":"Risk Sources and Risk Management Measures in Support of Standards for General-Purpose AI Systems","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Direct Harm Domains (societal harm)  ","risk_subcategory":"Deception (e.g., fraud) ","description":null,"entity":"Not coded","intent":"Not coded","timing":"Not coded","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"62.09.04","quick_ref":"Gipiškis2024","paper_title":"Risk Sources and Risk Management Measures in Support of Standards for General-Purpose AI Systems","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Direct Harm Domains (societal harm)  ","risk_subcategory":"Manipulation (e.g., deepfakes) ","description":null,"entity":"Not coded","intent":"Not coded","timing":"Not coded","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"62.31.03#1","quick_ref":"Gipiškis2024","paper_title":"Risk Sources and Risk Management Measures in Support of Standards for General-Purpose AI Systems","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Impacts of AI (Societal Impacts) ","risk_subcategory":"Automatically generating disinformation at scale","description":"\"Disinformation (in various modalities: text, audio, images, video, etc.) can be generated with minimal human oversight and effort. Disinformation tools are relatively cheap and their technology is widely available. Such deployments can be particularly widespread in sensitive political contexts.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"62.31.05","quick_ref":"Gipiškis2024","paper_title":"Risk Sources and Risk Management Measures in Support of Standards for General-Purpose AI Systems","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Impacts of AI (Societal Impacts) ","risk_subcategory":"Generative AI use in political influence campaigns","description":"\"GPAI tools can be used in automation and scaling of influence campaigns [178]. Public opinion may be manipulated by targeted misleading or manipulative information. This can lead to rising political polarization and diminishing trust in public institutions.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"62.31.10","quick_ref":"Gipiškis2024","paper_title":"Risk Sources and Risk Management Measures in Support of Standards for General-Purpose AI Systems","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Impacts of AI (Societal Impacts) ","risk_subcategory":"Misuse for surveillance and population control","description":"\"AI tools can be misused by human or institutional actors for monitoring, control- ling, or suppressing individuals [178]. Massive data collection and automated analysis are often conducted, and AI tools can further exacerbate such practices.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"62.31.12","quick_ref":"Gipiškis2024","paper_title":"Risk Sources and Risk Management Measures in Support of Standards for General-Purpose AI Systems","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Impacts of AI (Societal Impacts) ","risk_subcategory":"Diminishing societal trust due to disinformation or manipulation","description":"\"The use of GPAIs may contribute to the proliferation of either deliberate dis- information or unintended misinformation can severely erode trust in public figures and democratic institutions. This diminishing trust can extend to other forms of media, making the public less informed.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Other","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"62.31.13","quick_ref":"Gipiškis2024","paper_title":"Risk Sources and Risk Management Measures in Support of Standards for General-Purpose AI Systems","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Impacts of AI (Societal Impacts) ","risk_subcategory":"Personalized disinformation","description":"\"Automatic generation of disinformation can be personalized to target specific groups or individuals. Such attacks can be more effective in achieving their goals, and their costs can be significantly reduced when using GPAIs.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"64.01.03","quick_ref":"Marchal2024","paper_title":"Generative AI Misuse: A Taxonomy of Tactics and Insights from Real-World Data","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Misuse tactics that exploit GenAI capabilities (Realistic depiction of human likeness) ","risk_subcategory":"Sockpuppeting ","description":"\"Create synthetic online personas or accounts\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"64.02.01","quick_ref":"Marchal2024","paper_title":"Generative AI Misuse: A Taxonomy of Tactics and Insights from Real-World Data","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Misuse tactics that exploit GenAI capabilities (Realistic depictions of non-humans) ","risk_subcategory":"Falisification ","description":"\"Fabricate or falsely represent evidence, incl. reports, IDs, documents\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"65.14.06","quick_ref":"IBM2025","paper_title":"AI Risk Atlas ","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Output risks (misuse) ","risk_subcategory":"Spreading disinformation ","description":"\"Generative AI models might be used to intentionally create misleading or false information to deceive or influence a targeted audience.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"66.02.02","quick_ref":"Li2025","paper_title":"A Closer Look at the Existing Risks of Generative AI: Mapping the Who, What, and How of Real-World Incidents","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Political and Economic","risk_subcategory":"Institutional trust loss","description":"\"Erosion of trust in public institutions and weakened checks and balances due to mis/disinformation, influence operations, or real or perceived misuse of generative AI\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Other","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"66.07.04","quick_ref":"Li2025","paper_title":"A Closer Look at the Existing Risks of Generative AI: Mapping the Who, What, and How of Real-World Incidents","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Psychological","risk_subcategory":"Coercion / manipulation","description":"\"Use of a technology system to covertly alter user beliefs and behaviour using nudging, dark patterns and/or other opaque techniques\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"67.03.03","quick_ref":"DSIT2023","paper_title":"Capabilities and Risks from Frontier AI","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Misuse risks","risk_subcategory":"Disinformation and Influence Operations","description":"\"In addition to unintentional degradation of the information environment (discussed in the section on Societal Harms above), frontier AI can be misused to deliberately spread false information to create disruption, persuade people on political issues, or cause other forms of harm or damage.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"72.01.04","quick_ref":"Tse2025","paper_title":"Frontier AI Risk Management Framework (v1.0)","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Misuse Risks ","risk_subcategory":"Large-Scale Persuasion and Harmful Manipulation Risks","description":"\"AI systems can be gravely misused to distort public perception and compromise social stability through the generation of synthetic content (e.g., deepfakes, sophisticated fake news) and the strategic manipulation of digital platforms with large user bases to disseminate or precisely target misleading information or ideologies.\"","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"},{"ev_id":"73.03.03","quick_ref":"Anwar2024","paper_title":"Foundational Challenges in Assuring Alignment and Safety of Large Language Models","level":"Risk Sub-Category","risk_category":"Dual-Use Capabilities Enable Malicious Use and Misuse of LLMs","risk_subcategory":"Surveillance and Censorship","description":"\"Content moderation has emerged as one of the key use-cases of LLMs (Weng et al., 2023), indicating the potential of LLMs for surveillance and censorship as well (Edwards, 2023). Surveillance and censorship are one of the primary tools employed by governments with dictatorial tendencies to suppress opposing political and social voices. These censorship measures, however, are often quite crude and can be escaped with little ingenuity...However, LLMs could enable significantly more sophisticated surveillance and censorship operations at scale (Feldstein, 2019). Multimodal-LLMs or LLMs combined w","entity":"Human","intent":"Intentional","timing":"Post-deployment","domain":4,"subdomain":"4.1"}]}